TheeCells

logo

Sexually Transmitted Infections: Types, Symptoms, and Prevention

by

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a common health concern that affects millions of people worldwide.1 2 STIs are infections that are spread through sexual contact, and they can cause a range of symptoms, from mild discomfort to serious health problems. Some STIs can even be life-threatening if left untreated.3

STIs are caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites that are transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral sex. Common STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, herpes, and human papillomavirus (HPV).4 These infections can be spread through any type of sexual contact, including skin-to-skin contact, sharing sex toys, and even kissing.5

It is essential to recognize the risks associated with sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and the methods for their prevention and treatment. An overview of common STIs, including their symptoms, diagnostic procedures, and treatment options will be provided. Additionally, strategies for preventing the transmission of STIs, such as safe sex practices and regular testing, will be explored.3

Types of Sexually Transmitted Infections

Several types of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can be transmitted through sexual contact. The most common types of STIs include bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections.1 6 7

Bacterial Infections

Bacterial STIs are caused by various types of bacteria and can be treated with antibiotics. The most common bacterial STIs include:

  • Chlamydia: This STI is caused by the gram-negative bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis and can affect both men and women. It primarily infects the mucous membranes of the urogenital tract, but it can also affect the rectum, throat, and eyes.8 It can be transmitted through vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Symptoms may include abnormal vaginal discharge, pain during sex, and burning during urination.9 This infection is often referred to as a “silent” STD because many people who have it do not experience any noticeable symptoms.10 11 12 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), millions of new cases are reported each year. It is particularly common among young people aged 15 to 24, making targeted education and prevention efforts crucial in this demographic.13 14 Chlamydia trachomatis can be classified into several serovars, which are distinguished based on their genetic and antigenic characteristics. The most relevant for STIs are the serovars D through K, which are associated with urogenital infections.15 16. If left untreated, Chlamydia can lead to several serious complications, including: pelvic inflammatory diseases, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, reiter’s syndrome, and increased HIV risk.17 18 19
  • Gonorrhea: This STI is caused by the gram-negative diplococcus bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae and can also affect both men and women.20 21 It can be transmitted through vaginal, anal, or oral sex.22 Symptoms may include discharge, pain during sex, and burning during urination.23 Gonorrhea is one of the most common STIs globally. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are an estimated 87 million new cases each year. The infection is particularly prevalent among young adults aged 15 to 24.24 25 This bacteria is known for its ability to mutate, leading to various strains that can exhibit different levels of antibiotic resistance. 26 27 28 If left untreated, gonorrhea can lead to several serious complications: pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, disseminated gonococcal infection, increased HIV risk, and complications in Newborns.29 24
  • Syphilis: This STI is caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum and can be transmitted through vaginal, anal, or oral sex.30 31 32 Symptoms may include sores, rash, and fever. Syphilis is known for its progression through four stages: primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary.33 34 35 36 Globally, syphilis rates have seen fluctuations, with certain populations experiencing higher prevalence. According to the World Health Organization, there has been a resurgence of syphilis cases in various regions, particularly among men who have sex with men.37 38 39 If left untreated, syphilis can lead to serious health complications. These may include: cardiovascular issues such as aortitis or aneurysms, neurological problems, ocular syphilis and pregnancy complications.40 30
  • Ureaplasma infection: Is caused by a group of bacteria known as Ureaplasma, which are part of the Mycoplasma family. These microorganisms are unique because they lack a cell wall, making them resistant to many common antibiotics. 41 42 43 Ureaplasma infections are often asymptomatic. The most common species associated with human infections are Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum. Studies suggest that Ureaplasma can be found in approximately 40-80% of sexually active individuals, particularly among those attending reproductive health clinics.44 The infection is more common in women and can be associated with conditions like infertility and complications during pregnancy.45 46 Ureaplasma species are classified as non-pathogenic or pathogenic based on their association with disease.41 Complications from Ureaplasma infections can include: Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, infertility, pregnancy complications, urethritis and respiratory issues in newborns.46 47
  • Granuloma inguinale or Klebsiella granulomatis: Granuloma inguinale, also known as donovanosis, is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Klebsiella granulomatis. It typically presents as painless, progressive ulcers that can develop in the genital area, including the vulva, penis, and perineum.48 49 50 These lesions are often beefy red in appearance and may bleed easily when touched.51 52 Granuloma inguinale is relatively rare in many parts of the world, but it is more commonly reported in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in parts of Africa, South America, and India.50 Granuloma inguinale falls under the category of ulcerative sexually transmitted infections.48 53
  • Chancroid: Is a bacterial sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi. The hallmark of chancroid is the appearance of one or more painful ulcers, typically starting as small red bumps that quickly develop into open sores. These ulcers can be quite tender and may have a grayish or yellowish base.54 55 56 Accompanying symptoms often include swollen lymph nodes in the groin, which can become painful and may even form abscesses if not treated.57 Chancroid is relatively uncommon in developed countries but remains a significant public health issue in certain regions, particularly in parts of Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.54 Chancroid is classified as a type of ulcerative sexually transmitted infection (STI).
  • Mycoplasma genitalium: Mycoplasma genitalium is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by a small bacterium of the same name. The infection is often asymptomatic, meaning many people may carry the bacteria without knowing it.58 59 60 However, when symptoms do occur, they can include urethritis (inflammation of the urethra) in men,58 leading to painful urination and discharge. In women, it can cause cervicitis (inflammation of the cervix) and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which may manifest as abnormal vaginal discharge, pelvic pain, or bleeding between periods.61 62 Studies suggest that it is particularly prevalent among young adults and those with multiple sexual partners.63 64 Mycoplasma genitalium is classified as a non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) pathogen.65 66 It is part of the Mycoplasmataceae family, which includes other organisms that can cause infections in humans.67
  • Mycoplasma hominis: Mycoplasma hominis is typically found in the urogenital tract of healthy individuals, and while it can be part of the normal flora, it has the potential to cause infections under certain conditions.68 69 Symptoms can vary widely; many people may not experience any symptoms at all, while others might develop issues such as urethritis or pelvic inflammatory disease. It is classified as a urogenital pathogen, meaning it is primarily associated with infections in the urinary and reproductive systems.70

Viral Infections

Viral STIs are caused by various types of viruses and cannot be cured with antibiotics. The most common viral STIs include:

  • Human papillomavirus (HPV): This STI is caused by the human papillomavirus and can be transmitted through vaginal, anal, or oral sex. It can cause genital warts and may lead to cervical cancer in women.71 HPV is a non-enveloped virus that primarily infects the skin and mucous membranes. It is categorized into low-risk and high-risk types.72 Low-risk HPVs, such as types 6 and 11, are often responsible for benign conditions like genital warts and some benign tumors., while high-risk types, such as 16 and 18, are associated with the development of cancers, particularly cervical cancer, but also anal, oropharyngeal, vulvar, vaginal, and penile cancers.73 74 75 76 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the majority of sexually active individuals will contract some form of HPV at some point in their lives.In fact, it’s estimated that about 80% of sexually active people will have an HPV infection by the age of 50.77 78
  • Herpes: This STI is caused by the Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) and Herpes Simplex Virus type 2 (HSV-2) and can be transmitted through vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Symptoms may include sores, blisters, and itching.79 80 HSV-1 is most commonly associated with oral herpes, which manifests as cold sores, while HSV-2 is generally linked to genital herpes.81 Herpes viruses are known for their ability to establish lifelong infections in the host.82 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 67% of the global population under 50 years old is infected with HSV-1, while about 13.2% of people aged 15-49 are infected with HSV-2.83 84 In the United States alone, millions of people are living with herpes, with many being unaware of their infection.85 86
  • Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): This STI is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and can be transmitted through specific bodily fluids, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, rectal fluids, and breast milk and is spread by sexual activity.87 It attacks the immune system, specifically the CD4 T cells, which are crucial for fighting off infections. The virus attacks these cells, gradually weakening the immune system over time.88 If left untreated, HIV can lead to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), a more severe condition where the immune system is severely compromised, making the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections and certain cancers.89 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 38 million people were living with HIV globally as of 2020. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the hardest-hit region, accounting for a substantial majority of the world’s HIV cases.90 In the United States, around 1.2 million people are living with HIV, with new infections occurring at a rate of about 34,000 per year.91 Certain populations, including men who have sex with men, transgender individuals, and people who inject drugs, are disproportionately affected. HIV is classified into two main types: HIV-1 (the most common and widespread type of HIV, responsible for the majority of HIV infections globally. It is further divided into several subtypes and groups) and HIV-2 (less common and primarily found in West Africa, though it has been reported in other regions as well).
  • Viral hepatitis (Hepatitis B Virus): Hepatitis B is a DNA virus belonging to the Hepadnaviridae family. It is known for its ability to cause both acute and chronic infections.92 The virus is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, including blood, semen, and vaginal secretions. This can occur through various means, such as unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth.93 (Anteneh 2021). Once inside the body, HBV targets liver cells (hepatocytes), where it can replicate. The immune response to the virus can lead to inflammation of the liver, which is the hallmark of hepatitis.94 95 While some individuals may experience mild symptoms, others may develop more severe liver issues. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 296 million people were living with chronic HBV infection as of 2019.96 97 Hepatitis B virus is classified into several genotypes (A to H), which vary in their geographic distribution and clinical outcomes.98 99
  • Zika virus: Zika virus is an arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus). It is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected Aedes mosquitoes, particularly Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.100 101 The virus can also be transmitted through sexual contact, from mother to fetus during pregnancy, and through blood transfusions.101 While many people infected with Zika virus may not show symptoms, those who do often experience mild illness characterized by fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis (red eyes). Symptoms typically last for about a week. One of the most alarming complications is the risk of congenital Zika syndrome in infants born to mothers infected with the virus during pregnancy. This can lead to severe birth defects, including microcephaly (a condition where a baby’s head is significantly smaller than expected), as well as other neurological issues.102 103
  • Molluscum contagiosum: Is a viral skin infection caused by the molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV), which belongs to the poxvirus family. This condition is characterized by small, raised, pearly or flesh-colored bumps on the skin, often with a dimpled center.104 Molluscum contagiosum is particularly common in children, but it can also affect adults, especially those with weakened immune systems.105 106 The virus spreads through direct skin-to-skin contact, and it can also be transmitted through contaminated objects, such as towels or gym equipment.107 There are different types of MCV, the most common is MCV-1, which accounts for the majority of cases. Other types, such as MCV-2, are more often associated with sexually transmitted infections in adults.108 Molluscum contagiosum is generally considered a benign condition that often resolves on its own without treatment.105

Parasitic Infections

Parasitic STIs are caused by various types of parasites and can be treated with medication. The most common parasitic STIs include:

  • Trichomoniasis: This STI is caused by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. This infection is characterized by a range of symptoms, although many individuals may remain asymptomatic. 109 110  When symptoms do occur, they can include itching, burning, redness or soreness of the genitals, discomfort during urination, and unusual discharge, which may be frothy and yellow-green in color. In men, symptoms can manifest as irritation inside the penis, discharge, or discomfort during urination.111 112 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that around 3.7 million people in the United States are infected, but only a fraction of those individuals are diagnosed and treated. It is particularly prevalent among sexually active women, especially those in their reproductive years, and it is often associated with other STIs.113 
  • Pubic lice: Also known as “crabs,” this STI is caused by the parasite Phthirus pubis and can be transmitted through sexual contact or close personal contact. Symptoms may include itching and visible lice or eggs in the pubic hair.114 Pubic lice are relatively common, especially among sexually active individuals. While they can affect anyone, they are more frequently found in adults, particularly those who have multiple sexual partners.115 They fall under the category of ectoparasites, which are organisms that live on the outside of a host.116 117 They are distinct from head lice and body lice, both of which are different species with specific habitats on the human body.118 119
  • Scabies: Scabies is a highly contagious skin condition caused by an infestation of the microscopic mite Sarcoptes scabiei.120 121 These tiny parasites burrow into the upper layer of the skin, leading to intense itching and a rash.120 The characteristic symptoms often include red, inflamed patches, small blisters, and, in some cases, crusted lesions. The itching tends to worsen at night, which can be particularly distressing for those affected.122 123 The World Health Organization estimates that scabies affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide.124 Scabies is classified as an ectoparasitic infestation, which means the mites live on the surface of the skin rather than inside the body.125 There are different types of scabies, including classic scabies, which is most common, and crusted scabies, a more severe form that occurs in individuals with weakened immune systems. 120 124

Transmission and Risk Factors

Sexual Contact

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are primarily transmitted through sexual contact. This includes vaginal, anal, and oral sex. The risk of transmission increases with the number of sexual partners and unprotected sex.126 127 STIs can be transmitted regardless of gender, sexual orientation, or age.128

Generally, anal sex is associated with a higher risk of STI transmission compared to vaginal sex. For instance, studies indicate that the risk of HIV transmission during anal sex can be as high as 1 in 72 exposures if the receptive partner is HIV-negative and the insertive partner is HIV-positive.129

The rectal mucosa is more susceptible to microtears, which can facilitate the entry of pathogens.130 131 Additionally, research has shown that the transmission rate for gonorrhea and chlamydia during anal sex can be around 30% per exposure, particularly among men who have sex with men (MSM).132 133

Vaginal intercourse poses a moderate risk for STI transmission. The transmission risk for HIV during vaginal sex is estimated to be about 1 in 1,250 exposures for receptive vaginal intercourse if one partner is HIV-positive.134 For other STIs, such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, the transmission rates can range from 20% to 30% per exposure, especially if the infected partner is symptomatic.135 

Research has shown that women who have sex with infected partners have a higher likelihood of acquiring STIs due to anatomical and biological factors.136

Oral sex is generally considered to carry the lowest risk for STI transmission, but it is not risk-free. The transmission rates for HIV through oral sex are estimated to be less than 1 in 10,000 exposures, making it a significantly lower risk compared to anal or vaginal sex.134 

However Certain STIs, such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) and syphilis, can still be transmitted through oral sex. For example, a study found that the risk of transmitting HSV-1 (commonly associated with oral herpes) through oral sex could be as high as 30% if the infected partner has an active outbreak.137

Engaging in safer sex practices, such as using condoms and regular STI testing, can significantly reduce the risks associated with all forms of sexual activity.

Non-Sexual Transmission

STIs can also be transmitted through non-sexual means such as sharing needles, blood transfusions, and mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.138 

For instance, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can be transmitted through sharing contaminated needles, with intravenous drug users being at particularly high risk. It is estimated that approximately 20% of the people living with HIV in the U.S. are unaware of their infection.139

In addition to needle sharing, blood transfusions can pose a risk if the donated blood is not properly screened. However, this risk has significantly decreased due to rigorous testing protocols implemented over the years, making blood transfusions much safer today. Despite these advancements, the potential for transmission remains a concern, especially in areas where screening may not be as comprehensive.

Another critical route of transmission is mother-to-child transmission, which can occur during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. Syphilis serves as a notable example, as it can cross the placenta during pregnancy, leading to congenital syphilis.140 This condition can cause severe complications such as developmental delays, bone deformities, and even stillbirth.

Similarly, HIV can be transmitted during childbirth or through breastfeeding, potentially resulting in the infant becoming infected with the virus. If not treated, this can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the child.141 Another STI, the herpes simplex virus (HSV), can also be transmitted to the baby during delivery if the mother has an active outbreak, leading to neonatal herpes, a serious condition that can cause brain damage or death.

Additionally, hepatitis B can be transmitted from an infected mother to her child during childbirth. Without vaccination, about 90% of infants born to infected mothers may develop chronic hepatitis B, which can have long-term health implications.142 

High-Risk Behaviors

Certain behaviors can increase the risk of contracting an STI. These include having unprotected sex, having sex with multiple partners, and using drugs or alcohol before sex.

Engaging in vaginal, anal, or oral sex without the use of condoms or dental dams greatly increases the risk of STI transmission. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), consistent and correct condom use can reduce the risk of STIs by up to 80%.3 This significant reduction is crucial, as a study published in American Journal of Epidemiology found that individuals who did not use condoms during casual sexual encounters had a higher prevalence of STIs, including gonorrhea and chlamydia.143 

Moreover, the likelihood of exposure to STIs escalates when individuals have multiple sexual partners. A study revealed that individuals with three or more sexual partners in the past year were significantly more likely to test positive for STIs compared to those with fewer partners. This increased risk is compounded by the fact that having multiple partners raises the chances of encountering someone who may be infected, often without their knowledge.144 145

Additionally, the use of alcohol and drugs can further impair judgment and lead to risky sexual behaviors, such as unprotected sex or engaging with multiple partners. Research published in Addiction indicates that individuals who consume alcohol before engaging in sexual activity are more likely to have unprotected sex, thereby increasing their risk of STIs. This risky behavior is often exacerbated by a lack of awareness regarding one’s own or their partners’ STI status, placing individuals at an even higher risk.146

A study published in Sexually Transmitted Infections found that among individuals who tested positive for STIs, many were unaware of their infection. Not getting tested regularly can lead to undiagnosed infections, which can then be transmitted to others. The CDC recommends regular STI screenings for sexually active individuals, particularly those with multiple partners or those who engage in high-risk behaviors.147 A case study in The Lancet highlighted that regular screening and treatment of STIs in high-risk populations led to a significant decrease in transmission rates.148

Certain sexual practices, such as anal sex, particularly without lubrication or protection, can also increase the risk of transmission due to the potential for microtears in the rectal lining. Research indicates that receptive anal intercourse has a higher risk of HIV transmission compared to vaginal sex, with estimates suggesting a risk of 1 in 72 exposures 129. This elevated risk is critical to consider, especially for individuals who may already be engaging in high-risk behaviors.

Finally, being in a relationship with someone who has an untreated STI significantly increases the risk of contracting an infection. For instance, a study in The Journal of Infectious Diseases found that when one partner is infected with chlamydia, the likelihood of the other partner contracting the infection is approximately 25% within a year if no preventive measures are taken.149

Symptoms and Diagnosis

Common Symptoms

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can present with a wide range of symptoms, some of which may be mistaken for other conditions. The most common symptoms of STIs include:

  • Pain or burning during urination
  • Unusual discharge from the genitals
  • Pain or discomfort during sex
  • Sores, bumps, or rashes on or around the genitals or anus
  • Itching or irritation in the genital area
  • Flu-like symptoms, such as fever, fatigue, and swollen glands

Note that some STIs may not cause any noticeable symptoms, which is why regular testing is recommended for sexually active individuals.

Testing and Identification

STIs can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, depending on the specific infection. Some common tests include:

  • Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATs): NAATs are highly sensitive tests that detect the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of pathogens. They are the preferred method for diagnosing chlamydia due to their high sensitivity and specificity. Similarly, NAATs are effective for diagnosing gonorrhea. Some NAATs can detect HIV RNA, particularly useful in early infection stages. NAATs can be performed on urine samples, vaginal swabs, or rectal swabs, making them convenient for patients. The high sensitivity of NAATs helps in detecting asymptomatic infections, which are common with chlamydia and gonorrhea.150 151
  • Blood Tests: Serological tests detect antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection.152 They can indicate whether someone has been exposed to a specific pathogen. Antibody tests (e.g., ELISA) can detect antibodies to HIV, typically within 3 to 12 weeks after exposure. Non-treponemal tests (e.g., RPR, VDRL) and treponemal tests (e.g., FTA-ABS) are used to diagnose syphilis.153 154 155 Non-treponemal tests are often used for initial screening. Serological tests can detect antibodies to hepatitis B virus (anti-HBs, anti-HBc) and hepatitis C virus (anti-HCV). Blood tests can detect antibodies for HSV-1 and HSV-2, indicating a past or current infection.156 Serological tests typically require a blood sample, and results may take longer than NAATs. The window period (time after infection before antibodies are detectable) varies by infection, which can affect the timing of testing.157
  • Culture Tests: Culture tests involve growing the pathogen in a laboratory setting from a sample taken from the patient. Cultures can be performed on urine, vaginal, or throat samples to detect Neisseria gonorrhoeae158 (Meyer 2020). While less common now due to the preference for NAATs, cultures can also be used for chlamydia. Viral cultures can be performed on fluid from sores to identify HSV. Culture tests are less sensitive than NAATs and may take several days to yield results. They are particularly useful for identifying antibiotic resistance in gonorrhea.
  • Microscopy and Direct Visualization: This involves examining samples under a microscope to identify pathogens directly. For instance, a wet mount microscopy can detect this Trichomonas vaginalis in vaginal or urethral secretions.159 160 Microscopy can help identify characteristic “clue cells” in vaginal secretions.160 Microscopy is quick and can provide immediate results, but it may not be as sensitive as other methods, leading to potential false negatives.161 162
  • Rapid Tests: These tests provide quick results, often within minutes to hours, and are typically easy to administer. When it is HIV-related, rapid antibody tests can provide results in as little as 20 minutes.163 164 While rapid tests offer convenience, confirmatory testing is often needed for a definitive diagnosis, especially if the rapid test result is positive.165

Each testing method has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of test often depends on the specific STI being diagnosed, the patient’s symptoms, and the clinical setting. Regular testing and early detection are crucial for effective treatment and reducing the spread of STIs. 

Prevention and Safe Practices

Barrier Methods

Using barrier methods during sexual activity is an effective way to prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Condoms are the most commonly used barrier method and are highly effective in reducing the risk of STIs. Other barrier methods, such as dental dams and female condoms, can also be used to prevent the transmission of STIs.

Male condoms, typically made from latex or polyurethane, are one of the most common barrier methods.166 167 A study found that consistent condom use among sexually active adolescents significantly reduced the rates of STIs, including chlamydia and gonorrhea. The research indicated that adolescents who reported consistent condom use were 50% less likely to contract STIs compared to those who did not use condoms.168

Female condoms, which are made from nitrile or polyurethane, also provide effective protection against STIs. Research indicates that female condoms can reduce the risk of STIs similarly to male condoms, although they are less commonly used.169 170 A study conducted in the United States, Thailand and Kenya, found that female condoms are effective in preventing STI transmission and can empower women to take control of their sexual health.171

Vaccination

Vaccines are available for some STIs, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis B. These vaccines can be highly effective in preventing the transmission of these infections. 

The HPV vaccine is widely available and recommended for preteens, adolescents, and young adults. The most commonly used vaccines are Gardasil and Gardasil 9, which protect against multiple strains of HPV, including those most commonly associated with cervical cancer and genital warts.172 The CDC recommends vaccination for girls and boys starting at ages 11 to 12, although it can be given as early as age 9 and up to age 26 (and in some cases, up to age 45.173

Research has demonstrated that the HPV vaccine is highly effective in preventing infections with the types of HPV it targets. A study found that the vaccine has led to a significant decline in HPV prevalence among vaccinated populations. Specifically, the prevalence of HPV types 16 and 18, which are responsible for approximately 70% of cervical cancer cases, has decreased by over 80% in vaccinated cohorts.174 175

One notable case study from Australia, which implemented a nationwide HPV vaccination program, showed a dramatic reduction in cervical cancer rates. According to a report from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, there was a 50% reduction in cervical cancer rates among women aged 15 to 24 within a decade of the vaccination program’s initiation. This evidence supports the vaccine’s effectiveness in real-world settings.176

The hepatitis B vaccine is also widely available and is typically administered in a series of three shots over a six-month period. It is recommended for all infants at birth, as well as for unvaccinated children and adolescents, adults at high risk (such as healthcare workers and those with multiple sexual partners), and travelers to regions where hepatitis B is common.

The hepatitis B vaccine is highly effective, with studies showing that it provides long-lasting immunity in over 90% of individuals who complete the vaccination series. A study confirmed that the vaccine effectively prevents acute hepatitis B infection and reduces the risk of chronic hepatitis B and its complications, including liver cirrhosis and liver cancer.177

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the introduction of the hepatitis B vaccine has led to a significant decline in the prevalence of hepatitis B infection worldwide. In countries that have implemented widespread vaccination programs, the incidence of new hepatitis B infections has dropped by over 68%178

Behavioral Strategies

Practicing safe sex by limiting the number of sexual partners and avoiding high-risk sexual behaviors, such as unprotected sex and sharing needles, can also help prevent the transmission of STIs. 

Research has shown that populations with lower numbers of sexual partners tend to have lower rates of STIs. For example, a study conducted among adolescents in the United States found that those who reported fewer sexual partners had significantly lower rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea. This correlation emphasizes the protective effect of limiting sexual partners.

It is important to communicate openly and honestly with sexual partners about STI status and to get tested regularly for STIs.

Treatment and Management

Antibiotics and Antivirals

Antibiotics and antivirals play crucial roles in the treatment of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), effectively eradicating bacterial infections and managing viral infections. 

Antibiotics are the primary treatment for bacterial STIs, such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Commonly prescribed antibiotics include:

  • Azithromycin: Often used to treat chlamydia, a single dose of azithromycin is highly effective and convenient.179
  • Doxycycline: This is another option for chlamydia and is typically prescribed for a longer duration.179
  • Ceftriaxone: This antibiotic is the standard treatment for gonorrhea, usually administered as an intramuscular injection.180
  • Benzathine penicillin G: This is the first-line treatment for syphilis, particularly for early and latent stages.180

When administered correctly, antibiotics can effectively treat most bacterial STIs. For example, the CDC reports that a single dose of azithromycin can cure chlamydia in over 95% of cases.181 182 However, treatment effectiveness can be compromised by antibiotic resistance, particularly in gonorrhea, where increasing resistance to ceftriaxone has been reported.183

Antiviral medications are used to manage viral STIs, such as HIV, herpes simplex virus (HSV), and hepatitis B.184 185 Key antiviral medications include:

  • Antiretroviral Therapy (ART): This is the standard treatment for HIV, involving a combination of medications that help control the virus and prevent progression to AIDS.186 Common ART regimens include tenofovir, emtricitabine, and efavirenz.
  • Acyclovir: This antiviral is commonly used to treat herpes simplex virus infections, reducing the severity and duration of outbreaks.187
  • Valacyclovir: An alternative to acyclovir, valacyclovir is also effective in managing HSV and can be taken less frequently due to its longer half-life.187
  • Entecavir and Tenofovir: These are used for treating chronic hepatitis B, helping to suppress the virus and prevent liver damage.188 189

While antivirals can manage symptoms and reduce viral load, they do not cure viral STIs. For instance, ART can reduce HIV viral loads to undetectable levels, significantly lowering the risk of transmission.190 191 A study published in The Lancet demonstrated that individuals on effective ART who achieve viral suppression do not transmit the virus to their sexual partners, a concept known as “Undetectable = Untransmittable” (U=U).192 193 Another study published in the Journal of the International Aids Society ‘believes’ theres risk associated.194

Chronic Management

For some STIs, such as herpes and HIV, there is no cure.195 However, there are medications available to help manage the symptoms and reduce the risk of transmission. People with chronic STIs should work closely with their healthcare provider to develop a management plan that works best for them. This may include regular check-ups, medication management, and lifestyle changes such as reducing stress and avoiding triggers that can cause outbreaks.

Epidemiology and Statistics

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a significant public health concern worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 376 million new cases of four curable STIs (chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and trichomoniasis) occur each year among people aged 15-49 years.196 197

In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported over 2.4 million cases of chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis in 2018. This marked the fifth consecutive year of increases in these three STIs.198

Young people aged 15-24 years are disproportionately affected by STIs, accounting for half of all new infections in the United States.199 Additionally, certain populations, including men who have sex with men, racial and ethnic minorities, and people living in poverty, are at higher risk of STIs.200

Prevention efforts, including condom use, routine testing, and treatment for infections, are critical in reducing the spread of STIs. It is essential to prioritize comprehensive sex education and access to healthcare services to address this public health issue.201

STIEstimated Global Prevalence (2016)
Chlamydia127 million
Gonorrhea87 million
Syphilis6 million
Trichomoniasis156 million

(Source: WHO)202

Overall, STIs remain a significant health concern worldwide, and it is essential to promote prevention efforts and access to healthcare services to reduce their incidence and impact.

Public Health and Education

Awareness Campaigns

Awareness campaigns play a significant role in preventing the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs).203 These campaigns focus on educating the public about the risks associated with unprotected sex and the various methods available for preventing STIs (Silva 2022).Engaging with these campaigns can help individuals learn more about STIs and how to protect themselves.

Additionally, these campaigns aim to emphasize the importance of regular STI testing. They provide information about the symptoms of STIs and encourage individuals to seek medical attention if they experience any related symptoms.204

Sex Education

Sex education is considered an essential component in preventing the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Comprehensive sex education programs equip students with the knowledge and skills necessary to make informed decisions regarding their sexual health.

There is support for the implementation of evidence-based sex education programs that address a broad range of topics, including STIs, contraception, and healthy relationships. These programs should be age-appropriate and culturally sensitive to ensure that all students receive the relevant information needed for informed decision-making about their sexual health.205 206

In addition to school-based sex education, it is encouraged that parents and guardians engage in open and honest conversations with their children about sex and STIs. By providing accurate information and guidance, parents and guardians can assist their children in making informed decisions regarding their sexual health.207 208

Research and Future Directions

Ongoing research continues to enhance the understanding of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and their impact on individuals and communities. Researchers are focused on developing improved prevention methods, more accurate testing, and more effective treatments for STIs. The following are some current areas of research and potential future directions in the field:

  • Vaccines: Vaccines are a promising area of research for STI prevention. Currently, there are vaccines available for human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis B. Researchers are also working on developing vaccines for other STIs, such as chlamydia and gonorrhea.148 209
  • New testing methods: Traditional STI testing methods can be time-consuming and may not always be accurate. Researchers are working on developing new testing methods, such as point-of-care tests, that can provide quick and accurate results.210 211 212
  • Antibiotic resistance: Antibiotic resistance is a growing concern in the treatment of STIs, particularly gonorrhea. Researchers are working to develop new antibiotics and alternative treatment methods to combat antibiotic-resistant STIs.213
  • Partner notification: Partner notification is an important part of STI prevention and treatment. Researchers are exploring new ways to improve partner notification, such as using technology to anonymously notify partners of potential exposure.214 215
  • STI education and awareness: Education and awareness are key to preventing the spread of STIs. Researchers are working to develop effective methods of STI education and awareness, particularly for high-risk populations.216 217

References

  1. Wihlfahrt, K., Günther, V., Mendling, W., Westermann, A., Willer, D., Gitas, G., Ruchay, Z., Maass, N., Allahqoli, L., & Alkatout, I. (2023). Sexually Transmitted Diseases-An Update and Overview of Current Research. Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland), 13(9), 1656. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13091656 ↩︎
  2. Fu, L., Sun, Y., Han, M., Wang, B., Xiao, F., Zhou, Y., Gao, Y., Fitzpatrick, T., Yuan, T., Li, P., Zhan, Y., Lu, Y., Luo, G., Duan, J., Hong, Z., Fairley, C. K., Zhang, T., Zhao, J., & Zou, H. (2022). Incidence Trends of Five Common Sexually Transmitted Infections Excluding HIV From 1990 to 2019 at the Global, Regional, and National Levels: Results From the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Frontiers in medicine, 9, 851635. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.851635 ↩︎
  3. Workowski, K. A., Bachmann, L. H., Chan, P. A., Johnston, C. M., Muzny, C. A., Park, I., Reno, H., Zenilman, J. M., & Bolan, G. A. (2021). Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021. MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports, 70(4), 1–187. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr7004a1 ↩︎
  4. Lytle-Barnaby R. (2016). Sexually Transmitted Diseases: An Overview. Delaware journal of public health, 2(2), 26–31. https://doi.org/10.32481/djph.2016.04.009 ↩︎
  5. Fasciana, T., Capra, G., Lipari, D., Firenze, A., & Giammanco, A. (2022). Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Diagnosis and Control. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(9), 5293. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095293 ↩︎
  6. Shelton A. A. (2004). Sexually transmitted parasitic diseases. Clinics in colon and rectal surgery, 17(4), 231–234. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-836943 ↩︎
  7. Shim B. S. (2011). Current concepts in bacterial sexually transmitted diseases. Korean journal of urology, 52(9), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.4111/kju.2011.52.9.589 ↩︎
  8. O’Connell, C. M., & Ferone, M. E. (2016). Chlamydia trachomatis Genital Infections. Microbial cell (Graz, Austria), 3(9), 390–403. https://doi.org/10.15698/mic2016.09.525 ↩︎
  9. Weir E. (2004). Upsurge of genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection. CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l’Association medicale canadienne, 171(8), 855. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.1041489 ↩︎
  10. Sturm-Ramirez, K., Brumblay, H., Diop, K., Guèye-Ndiaye, A., Sankalé, J. L., Thior, I., N’Doye, I., Hsieh, C. C., Mboup, S., & Kanki, P. J. (2000). Molecular epidemiology of genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection in high-risk women in Senegal, West Africa. Journal of clinical microbiology, 38(1), 138–145. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.38.1.138-145.2000 ↩︎
  11. Marrazzo, J., & Suchland, R. (2014). Recent advances in understanding and managing Chlamydia trachomatis infections. F1000prime reports, 6, 120. https://doi.org/10.12703/P6-120 ↩︎
  12. Abdo, N. M., Aslam, I., Irfan, S., George, J. A., Alsuwaidi, A. R., Ahmed, L. A., & Al-Rifai, R. H. (2023). Chlamydia trachomatis Seroepidemiology and Associated Factors in Fertility Treatment-Seeking Patients in the Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates. Sexually transmitted diseases, 50(9), 583–590. https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0000000000001842 ↩︎
  13. Elendu, C., Amaechi, D. C., Elendu, I. D., Elendu, T. C., Amaechi, E. C., Usoro, E. U., Chima-Ogbuiyi, N. L., Arrey Agbor, D. B., Onwuegbule, C. J., Afolayan, E. F., & Balogun, B. B. (2024). Global perspectives on the burden of sexually transmitted diseases: A narrative review. Medicine, 103(20), e38199. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000038199 ↩︎
  14. Lesiak-Markowicz, I., Schötta, A. M., Stockinger, H., Stanek, G., & Markowicz, M. (2019). Chlamydia trachomatis serovars in urogenital and ocular samples collected 2014-2017 from Austrian patients. Scientific reports, 9(1), 18327. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54886-5 ↩︎
  15. Gao, X., Chen, X. S., Yin, Y. P., Zhong, M. Y., Shi, M. Q., Wei, W. H., Chen, Q., Peeling, R. W., & Mabey, D. (2007). Distribution study of Chlamydia trachomatis serovars among high-risk women in China performed using PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism genotyping. Journal of clinical microbiology, 45(4), 1185–1189. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02076-06 ↩︎
  16. Rawre, J., Dhawan, B., Khanna, N., Sreenivas, V., Broor, S., & Chaudhry, R. (2019). Distribution of Chlamydia trachomatis omp A genotypes in patients attending a sexually transmitted disease outpatient clinic in New Delhi, India. The Indian journal of medical research, 149(5), 662–670. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1171_17 ↩︎
  17. den Heijer, C. D. J., Hoebe, C. J. P. A., Driessen, J. H. M., Wolffs, P., van den Broek, I. V. F., Hoenderboom, B. M., Williams, R., de Vries, F., & Dukers-Muijrers, N. H. T. M. (2019). Chlamydia trachomatis and the Risk of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, Ectopic Pregnancy, and Female Infertility: A Retrospective Cohort Study Among Primary Care Patients. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 69(9), 1517–1525. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciz429 ↩︎
  18. Malhotra, M., Sood, S., Mukherjee, A., Muralidhar, S., & Bala, M. (2013). Genital Chlamydia trachomatis: an update. The Indian journal of medical research, 138(3), 303–316 ↩︎
  19. Hoenderboom, B. M., van Benthem, B. H. B., van Bergen, J. E. A. M., Dukers-Muijrers, N. H. T. M., Götz, H. M., Hoebe, C. J. P. A., Hogewoning, A. A., Land, J. A., van der Sande, M. A. B., Morré, S. A., & van den Broek, I. V. F. (2019). Relation between Chlamydia trachomatis infection and pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy and tubal factor infertility in a Dutch cohort of women previously tested for chlamydia in a chlamydia screening trial. Sexually transmitted infections, 95(4), 300–306. https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2018-053778 ↩︎
  20. Quillin, S. J., & Seifert, H. S. (2018). Neisseria gonorrhoeae host adaptation and pathogenesis. Nature reviews. Microbiology, 16(4), 226–240. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro.2017.169 ↩︎
  21. Mahapure, K., & Singh, A. (2023). A Review of Recent Advances in Our Understanding of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Cureus, 15(8), e43464. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.43464 ↩︎
  22. Suay-García, B., & Pérez-Gracia, M. T. (2020). Neisseria gonorrhoeae Infections. Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland), 9(8), 647. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080647 ↩︎
  23. Piszczek, J., St Jean, R., & Khaliq, Y. (2015). Gonorrhea: Treatment update for an increasingly resistant organism. Canadian pharmacists journal : CPJ = Revue des pharmaciens du Canada : RPC, 148(2), 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/1715163515570111 ↩︎
  24. Kirkcaldy, R. D., Weston, E., Segurado, A. C., & Hughes, G. (2019). Epidemiology of gonorrhoea: a global perspective. Sexual health, 16(5), 401–411. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH19061 ↩︎
  25. Whelan, J., Abbing-Karahagopian, V., Serino, L., & Unemo, M. (2021). Gonorrhoea: a systematic review of prevalence reporting globally. BMC infectious diseases, 21(1), 1152. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06381-4 ↩︎
  26. Unemo, M., & Shafer, W. M. (2011). Antibiotic resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: origin, evolution, and lessons learned for the future. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1230, E19–E28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06215.x ↩︎
  27. Shaskolskiy, B., Kandinov, I., Dementieva, E., & Gryadunov, D. (2022). Antibiotic Resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Challenges in Research and Treatment. Microorganisms, 10(9), 1699. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10091699 ↩︎
  28. Kandinov, I., Gryadunov, D., Vinokurova, A., Antonova, O., Kubanov, A., Solomka, V., Shagabieva, J., Deryabin, D., & Shaskolskiy, B. (2022). In vitro Susceptibility to β-Lactam Antibiotics and Viability of Neisseria gonorrhoeae Strains Producing Plasmid-Mediated Broad- and Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamases. Frontiers in microbiology, 13, 896607. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.896607 ↩︎
  29. Ng, L. K., & Martin, I. E. (2005). The laboratory diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The Canadian journal of infectious diseases & medical microbiology = Journal canadien des maladies infectieuses et de la microbiologie medicale, 16(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1155/2005/323082 ↩︎
  30. Peeling, R. W., Mabey, D., Kamb, M. L., Chen, X. S., Radolf, J. D., & Benzaken, A. S. (2017). Syphilis. Nature reviews. Disease primers, 3, 17073. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.73 ↩︎
  31. Plagens-Rotman, K., Przybylska, R., Gerke, K., Piskorz-Szymendera, M., Tomaszewska, M., Sadowska-Przytocka, A., Adamski, Z., & Czarnecka-Operacz, M. (2019). Syphilis and a pregnant woman: a real danger for the woman and the child. Postepy dermatologii i alergologii, 36(1), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.5114/ada.2019.82833 ↩︎
  32. De Santis, M., De Luca, C., Mappa, I., Spagnuolo, T., Licameli, A., Straface, G., & Scambia, G. (2012). Syphilis Infection during pregnancy: fetal risks and clinical management. Infectious diseases in obstetrics and gynecology, 2012, 430585. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/430585 ↩︎
  33. Whiting, C., Schwartzman, G., & Khachemoune, A. (2023). Syphilis in Dermatology: Recognition and Management. American journal of clinical dermatology, 24(2), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40257-022-00755-3 ↩︎
  34. Baughn, R. E., & Musher, D. M. (2005). Secondary syphilitic lesions. Clinical microbiology reviews, 18(1), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.18.1.205-216.2005 ↩︎
  35. Dhaliwal, S., Patel, M., & Menter, A. (2012). Secondary syphilis and HIV. Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center), 25(1), 87–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2012.11928795 ↩︎
  36. Lopez, P., Kwentoh, I., & Valdez Imbert, M. (2023). A Peculiar Presentation of Syphilis as a Mysterious Rash: A Dermatological Dilemma. Cureus, 15(9), e45328. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.45328 ↩︎
  37. Refugio, O. N., & Klausner, J. D. (2018). Syphilis incidence in men who have sex with men with human immunodeficiency virus comorbidity and the importance of integrating sexually transmitted infection prevention into HIV care. Expert review of anti-infective therapy, 16(4), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2018.1446828 ↩︎
  38. Tsuboi, M., Evans, J., Davies, E. P., Rowley, J., Korenromp, E. L., Clayton, T., Taylor, M. M., Mabey, D., & Chico, R. M. (2021). Prevalence of syphilis among men who have sex with men: a global systematic review and meta-analysis from 2000-20. The Lancet. Global health, 9(8), e1110–e1118. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00221-7 ↩︎
  39. Tripathy, D. M., Gupta, S., & Vasudevan, B. (2022). Resurgence of syphilis, the great imitator. Medical journal, Armed Forces India, 78(2), 131–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2022.03.004 ↩︎
  40. Mukherjee, D., Banerjee, S., Kumar, H., Bhowmick, A., Maniruzzaman, M., & Akilimali, A. (2023). Syphilis Outbreak in Japan, an Emerging Concern. Microbiology insights, 16, 11786361231209610. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786361231209610 ↩︎
  41. Viscardi R. M. (2010). Ureaplasma species: role in diseases of prematurity. Clinics in perinatology, 37(2), 393–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clp.2009.12.003 ↩︎
  42. Sweeney, E. L., Dando, S. J., Kallapur, S. G., & Knox, C. L. (2016). The Human Ureaplasma Species as Causative Agents of Chorioamnionitis. Clinical microbiology reviews, 30(1), 349–379. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00091-16 ↩︎
  43. Waites, K. B., Xiao, L., Paralanov, V., Viscardi, R. M., & Glass, J. I. (2012). Molecular methods for the detection of Mycoplasma and ureaplasma infections in humans: a paper from the 2011 William Beaumont Hospital Symposium on molecular pathology. The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD, 14(5), 437–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoldx.2012.06.001 ↩︎
  44. Lobão, T. N., Campos, G. B., Selis, N. N., Amorim, A. T., Souza, S. G., Mafra, S. S., Pereira, L. S., Dos Santos, D. B., Figueiredo, T. B., Marques, L. M., & Timenetsky, J. (2017). Ureaplasma urealyticum and U. parvum in sexually active women attending public health clinics in Brazil. Epidemiology and infection, 145(11), 2341–2351. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268817001145 ↩︎
  45. Bartkeviciene, D., Opolskiene, G., Bartkeviciute, A., Arlauskiene, A., Lauzikiene, D., Zakareviciene, J., & Ramasauskaite, D. (2020). The impact of Ureaplasma infections on pregnancy complications. The Libyan journal of medicine, 15(1), 1812821. https://doi.org/10.1080/19932820.2020.181282 ↩︎
  46. Verteramo, R., Patella, A., Calzolari, E., Recine, N., Marcone, V., Osborn, J., Chiarini, F., & Degener, A. M. (2013). An epidemiological survey of Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum in gynaecological outpatients, Rome, Italy. Epidemiology and infection, 141(12), 2650–2657. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268813000277 ↩︎
  47. Sung T. J. (2010). Ureaplasma infections in pre-term infants: Recent information regarding the role of Ureaplasma species as neonatal pathogens. Korean journal of pediatrics, 53(12), 989–993. https://doi.org/10.3345/kjp.2010.53.12.989 ↩︎
  48. Richens J. (2006). Donovanosis (granuloma inguinale). Sexually transmitted infections, 82 Suppl 4(Suppl 4), iv21–iv22. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2006.023135 ↩︎
  49. Araújo, M. R. B., Sant’Anna, L. O., & Santos, L. S. D. (2021). Klebsiella granulomatis infection in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 54, e0436-2020. https://doi.org/10.1590/0037-8682-0436-2020 ↩︎
  50. Belda Junior W. (2020). Donovanosis. Anais brasileiros de dermatologia, 95(6), 675–683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abd.2020.07.002 ↩︎
  51. O’Farrell N. (2002). Donovanosis. Sexually transmitted infections, 78(6), 452–457. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.78.6.452 ↩︎
  52. Vendhan, D. S., Vasudevan, B., Gera, V., & Neema, S. (2023). Granuloma inguinale diagnosed on the bedside. Indian journal of sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS, 44(1), 87–88. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijstd.ijstd_68_22 ↩︎
  53. Sri, K. N., Chowdary, A. S., & Reddy, B. S. (2014). Genital donovanosis with malignant transformation: An interesting case report. Indian journal of sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS, 35(2), 135–137. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7184.142409 ↩︎
  54. González-Beiras, C., Marks, M., Chen, C. Y., Roberts, S., & Mitjà, O. (2016). Epidemiology of Haemophilus ducreyi Infections. Emerging infectious diseases, 22(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2201.150425 ↩︎
  55. Alfa M. (2005). The laboratory diagnosis of Haemophilus ducreyi. The Canadian journal of infectious diseases & medical microbiology = Journal canadien des maladies infectieuses et de la microbiologie medicale, 16(1), 31–34. https://doi.org/10.1155/2005/851610 ↩︎
  56. Lewis D. A. (2003). Chancroid: clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management. Sexually transmitted infections, 79(1), 68–71. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.79.1.68 ↩︎
  57. Mbata, T. I., Onile, B. A., Agbonlahor, D. E., Odugbemi, T. O., Anukam, K., Onyedum, U., & Orji, M. U. (2004). Diagnosis and Management of Chancroid in Nigeria. Malawi medical journal : the journal of Medical Association of Malawi, 16(1), 19–21. ↩︎
  58. Singh, A. E., Labbé, A. C., & Auguste, U. (2019). Mycoplasma genitalium infection. CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l’Association medicale canadienne, 191(4), E103. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.180881 ↩︎
  59. Ona, S., Molina, R. L., & Diouf, K. (2016). Mycoplasma genitalium: An Overlooked Sexually Transmitted Pathogen in Women?. Infectious diseases in obstetrics and gynecology, 2016, 4513089. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/4513089 ↩︎
  60. Sethi, S., Singh, G., Samanta, P., & Sharma, M. (2012). Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging sexually transmitted pathogen. The Indian journal of medical research, 136(6), 942–955. ↩︎
  61. Manhart, L. E., Gaydos, C. A., Taylor, S. N., Lillis, R. A., Hook, E. W., 3rd, Klausner, J. D., Remillard, C. V., Love, M., McKinney, B., & Getman, D. K. (2020). Characteristics of Mycoplasma genitalium Urogenital Infections in a Diverse Patient Sample from the United States: Results from the Aptima Mycoplasma genitalium Evaluation Study (AMES). Journal of clinical microbiology, 58(7), e00165-20. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00165-20 ↩︎
  62. Munoz, J. L., & Goje, O. J. (2016). Mycoplasma genitalium: An Emerging Sexually Transmitted Infection. Scientifica, 2016, 7537318. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7537318 ↩︎
  63. Manhart, L. E., Holmes, K. K., Hughes, J. P., Houston, L. S., & Totten, P. A. (2007). Mycoplasma genitalium among young adults in the United States: an emerging sexually transmitted infection. American journal of public health, 97(6), 1118–1125. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.074062 ↩︎
  64. Tosh, A. K., Van Der Pol, B., Fortenberry, J. D., Williams, J. A., Katz, B. P., Batteiger, B. E., & Orr, D. P. (2007). Mycoplasma genitalium among adolescent women and their partners. The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 40(5), 412–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.12.005 ↩︎
  65. Raj, J. S., Rawre, J., Dhawan, N., Khanna, N., & Dhawan, B. (2022). Mycoplasma genitalium: A new superbug. Indian journal of sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS, 43(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijstd.ijstd_103_20 ↩︎
  66. Jensen J. S. (2004). Mycoplasma genitalium: the aetiological agent of urethritis and other sexually transmitted diseases. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : JEADV, 18(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.00923.x ↩︎
  67. Taylor-Robinson, D., & Jensen, J. S. (2011). Mycoplasma genitalium: from Chrysalis to multicolored butterfly. Clinical microbiology reviews, 24(3), 498–514. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00006-11 ↩︎
  68. Margarita, V., Congiargiu, A., Diaz, N., Fiori, P. L., & Rappelli, P. (2023). Mycoplasma hominis and Candidatus Mycoplasma girerdii in Trichomonas vaginalis: Peaceful Cohabitants or Contentious Roommates?. Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland), 12(9), 1083. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12091083 ↩︎
  69. Moridi, K., Hemmaty, M., Azimian, A., Fallah, M. H., Khaneghahi Abyaneh, H., & Ghazvini, K. (2020). Epidemiology of genital infections caused by Mycoplasma hominis, M. genitalium and Ureaplasma urealyticum in Iran; a systematic review and meta-analysis study (2000-2019). BMC public health, 20(1), 1020. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08962-5 ↩︎
  70. Vallely, L. M., Egli-Gany, D., Pomat, W., Homer, C. S., Guy, R., Wand, H., Silver, B., Rumbold, A. R., Kaldor, J. M., Low, N., & Vallely, A. J. (2018). Adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes associated with Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma genitalium, M. hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum and U. parvum: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. BMJ open, 8(11), e024175. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024175 ↩︎
  71. Okunade K. S. (2020). Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology : the journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 40(5), 602–608. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443615.2019.1634030 ↩︎
  72. Longworth, M. S., & Laimins, L. A. (2004). Pathogenesis of Human Papillomaviruses in Differentiating Epithelia. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 68(2), 362–372. https://doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.68.2.362-372.2004 ↩︎
  73. Hirth, J. (2018). Disparities in HPV vaccination rates and HPV prevalence in the United States: a review of the literature. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 15(1), 146–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2018.1512453 ↩︎
  74. Kobayashi, K., Hisamatsu, K., Suzui, N., Hara, A., Tomita, H., & Miyazaki, T. (2018). A Review of HPV-Related Head and Neck Cancer. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(9), 241. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7090241 ↩︎
  75. Doorbar, J., Egawa, N., Griffin, H., Kranjec, C., & Murakami, I. (2015). Human papillomavirus molecular biology and disease association. Reviews in Medical Virology, 25(1), 2–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.1822 ↩︎
  76. Okunade, K. S. (2019). Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 40(5), 602–608. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443615.2019.1634030 ↩︎
  77. Ault, K. A. (2006). Epidemiology and Natural History of Human Papillomavirus Infections in the Female Genital Tract. Infectious Diseases in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2006, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1155/idog/2006/40470 ↩︎
  78. Chesson, H. W., Dunne, E. F., Hariri, S., & Markowitz, L. E. (2014). The Estimated Lifetime Probability of Acquiring Human Papillomavirus in the United States. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 41(11), 660–664. https://doi.org/10.1097/olq.0000000000000193 ↩︎
  79. Singh, A., Preiksaitis, J., Ferenczy, A., & Romanowski, B. (2005). The laboratory diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infections. The Canadian journal of infectious diseases & medical microbiology = Journal canadien des maladies infectieuses et de la microbiologie medicale, 16(2), 92–98. https://doi.org/10.1155/2005/318294 ↩︎
  80. Sauerbrei A. (2016). Herpes Genitalis: Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde, 76(12), 1310–1317. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-116494 ↩︎
  81. Grinde, B. (2013). Herpesviruses: latency and reactivation – viral strategies and host response. Journal of Oral Microbiology, 5(1), 22766. https://doi.org/10.3402/jom.v5i0.22766 ↩︎
  82. Connolly, S. A., Jardetzky, T. S., & Longnecker, R. (2021). The structural basis of herpesvirus entry. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 19(2), 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-00448-w ↩︎
  83. James, C., Harfouche, M., Welton, N. J., Turner, K. M., Abu-Raddad, L. J., Gottlieb, S. L., & Looker, K. J. (2020). Herpes simplex virus: global infection prevalence and incidence estimates, 2016. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 98(5), 315–329. https://doi.org/10.2471/blt.19.237149 ↩︎
  84. Looker, K. J., Magaret, A. S., May, M. T., Turner, K. M. E., Vickerman, P., Gottlieb, S. L., & Newman, L. M. (2015). Global and Regional Estimates of Prevalent and Incident Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infections in 2012. PLOS ONE, 10(10), e0140765. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140765 ↩︎
  85. Looker, K. (2008). An estimate of the global prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 86(10), 805–812. https://doi.org/10.2471/blt.07.046128 ↩︎
  86. Ribes, J. A., Steele, A. D., Seabolt, J. P., & Baker, D. J. (2001). Six-Year Study of the Incidence of Herpes in Genital and Nongenital Cultures in a Central Kentucky Medical Center Patient Population. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 39(9), 3321–3325. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.39.9.3321-3325.2001 ↩︎
  87. Kordy, K., Tobin, N. H., & Aldrovandi, G. M. (2019). HIV and SIV in Body Fluids: From Breast Milk to the Genitourinary Tract. Current Immunology Reviews, 15(1), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573395514666180605085313 ↩︎
  88. Sakthivel Govindaraj, Babu, H., Sunil Kannanganat, Vaccari, M., Constantinos Petrovas, & Vijayakumar Velu. (2023). Editorial: CD4+ T cells in HIV: A Friend or a Foe? Frontiers in Immunology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1203531 ↩︎
  89. Cai, C. W., & Sereti, I. (2021). Residual immune dysfunction under antiretroviral therapy. Seminars in Immunology, 51, 101471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smim.2021.101471 ↩︎
  90. del Rio, C. (2017). The global HIV epidemic: What the pathologist needs to know. Seminars in Diagnostic Pathology, 34(4), 314–317. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semdp.2017.05.001 ↩︎
  91. CDC Newsroom. (2016, January 1). CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2023/p0523-hiv-declines-among-young-people.html ↩︎
  92. Liang, T. J. (2009). Hepatitis B: the virus and disease. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.), 49(5 Suppl), S13-21. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.22881 ↩︎
  93. Anteneh, Z. A., Wondaye, E., & Mengesha, E. W. (2021). Hepatitis B virus infection and its determinants among HIV positive pregnant women: Multicenter unmatched case-control study. PLOS ONE, 16(4), e0251084. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251084 ↩︎
  94. Dandri, M., & Petersen, J. (2016). Mechanism of Hepatitis B Virus Persistence in Hepatocytes and Its Carcinogenic Potential. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 62(suppl 4), S281–S288. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw023 ↩︎
  95. Tan, A., Koh, S., & Bertoletti, A. (2015). Immune Response in Hepatitis B Virus Infection. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 5(8), a021428. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a021428 ↩︎
  96. Hsu, Y. C., Huang, D. Q., & Nguyen, M. H. (2023). Global burden of hepatitis B virus: current status, missed opportunities and a call for action. Nature reviews. Gastroenterology & hepatology, 20(8), 524–537. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-023-00760-9 ↩︎
  97. Zhang, C., Liu, Y., Zhao, H., & Wang, G. (2022). Global Patterns and Trends in Total Burden of Hepatitis B from 1990 to 2019 and Predictions to 2030. Clinical Epidemiology, Volume 14, 1519–1533. https://doi.org/10.2147/clep.s389853 ↩︎
  98. Sunbul, M. (2014). Hepatitis B virus genotypes: Global distribution and clinical importance. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 20(18), 5427. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v20.i18.5427 ↩︎
  99. Lin, C.-L. ., & Kao, J.-H. . (2015). Hepatitis B Virus Genotypes and Variants. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 5(5), a021436–a021436. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a021436 ↩︎
  100. Agumadu, V. C., & Ramphul, K. (2018). Zika Virus: A Review of Literature. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.3025 ↩︎
  101. Plourde, A. R., & Bloch, E. M. (2016). A Literature Review of Zika Virus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 22(7), 1185–1192. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2207.151990 ↩︎
  102. Bhandari, V., Taksande, A. B., & Bhagyesh Sapkale. (2023). Disease Transmission and Diagnosis of Zika Virus. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.49263 ↩︎
  103. Pergolizzi, J., LeQuang, J. A., Umeda‐Raffa, S., Fleischer, C., Pergolizzi, J., Pergolizzi, C., & Raffa, R. B. (2020). The Zika virus: Lurking behind the COVID‐19 pandemic? Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 46(2), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpt.13310 ↩︎
  104. Nandhini, G., Rajkumar, K., Kanth, K. S., Nataraj, P., Ananthakrishnan, P., & Arunachalam, M. (2015). Molluscum contagiosum in a 12-year-old child – report of a case and review of literature. Journal of International Oral Health : JIOH, 7(1), 63–66. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25709372/ ↩︎
  105. Meza-Romero, R., Navarrete-Dechent, C., & Downey, C. (2019). Molluscum contagiosum: An update and review of new perspectives in etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology, Volume 12, 373–381. https://doi.org/10.2147/ccid.s187224 ↩︎
  106. Hebert, A. A., Bhatia, N., & Del Rosso, J. Q. (2023). Molluscum Contagiosum: Epidemiology, Considerations, Treatment Options, and Therapeutic Gaps. The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 16(8 Suppl 1), S4–S11. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37636018/ ↩︎
  107. Mohan, R. P. S., Verma, S., Singh, A. K., & Singh, U. (2013). Molluscum contagiosum: report of one case with overview. Case Reports, 2013(apr17 1), bcr2013008744–bcr2013008744. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2013-008744 ↩︎
  108. Pati Aji Achdiat, Syafira Andiani, Reti Hindritiani, Srie Prihianti Gondokaryono, Gempita Nuzuliyah, Usman, H. A., & Retno Hesty Maharani. (2023). Molluscum Contagiosum in HIV Patient Treated with 20% Topical Glycolic Acid After Resistance with Topical Tretinoin. Clinical Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology, Volume 16, 2749–2755. https://doi.org/10.2147/ccid.s423304 ↩︎
  109. Kissinger, P. (2015). Epidemiology and Treatment of Trichomoniasis. Current Infectious Disease Reports, 17(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11908-015-0484-7 ↩︎
  110. Garber, G. E. (2005). The Laboratory Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis. Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology, 16(1), 35–38. https://doi.org/10.1155/2005/373920 ↩︎
  111. Patel, E. U., Gaydos, C. A., Packman, Z. R., Quinn, T. C., & Tobian, A. A. R. (2018). Prevalence and Correlates of Trichomonas vaginalis Infection Among Men and Women in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 67(2), 211–217. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciy079 ↩︎
  112. Van Der Pol, B. (2015). Clinical and Laboratory Testing for Trichomonas vaginalis Infection. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 54(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.02025-15 ↩︎
  113. Meites, E. (2013b). Trichomoniasis. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 27(4), 755–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2013.06.003 ↩︎
  114. Scanni, G. (2020). Phthiriasis capitis ab initio. Use of entodermoscopy for quick differentiation between Phthirus pubis and Pediculus capitis nits. Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia, 95(6), 777–779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abd.2020.03.019 ↩︎
  115. Anderson, A., & Chaney, E. (2009). Pubic Lice (Pthirus pubis): History, Biology and Treatment vs. Knowledge and Beliefs of US College Students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6(2), 592–600. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6020592 ↩︎
  116. Mathison, B. A., & Pritt, B. S. (2014). Laboratory Identification of Arthropod Ectoparasites. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 27(1), 48–67. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00008-13 ↩︎
  117. Muhammad, A., Bashir, R., Mahmood, M., Afzal, M. S., Simsek, S., Awan, U. A., Khan, M. R., Ahmed, H., & Cao, J. (2021). Epidemiology of Ectoparasites (Ticks, Lice, and Mites) in the Livestock of Pakistan: A Review. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, 780738. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.780738 ↩︎
  118. Bonilla, D. L., Durden, L. A., Eremeeva, M. E., & Dasch, G. A. (2013). The Biology and Taxonomy of Head and Body Lice—Implications for Louse-Borne Disease Prevention. PLoS Pathogens, 9(11), e1003724. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003724 ↩︎
  119. Fu, Y.-T., Yao, C., Deng, Y.-P., Elsheikha, H. M., Shao, R., Zhu, X.-Q., & Liu, G.-H. (2022). Human pediculosis, a global public health problem. Infectious Diseases of Poverty, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w ↩︎
  120. Al‐Dabbagh, J., Younis, R. T., & Ismail, N. (2023). The currently available diagnostic tools and treatments of scabies and scabies variants: An updated narrative review. Medicine, 102(21), e33805–e33805. https://doi.org/10.1097/md.0000000000033805 ↩︎
  121. Micali, G., Lacarrubba, F., Verzì, A. E., Chosidow, O., & Schwartz, R. A. (2016). Scabies: Advances in Noninvasive Diagnosis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004691 ↩︎
  122. Johnston, G., & Sladden, M. (2005). Scabies: diagnosis and treatment. BMJ, 331(7517), 619–622. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.331.7517.619 ↩︎
  123. Sunderkötter, C., Wohlrab, J., & Hamm, H. (2021). Scabies: Epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Deutsches Aerzteblatt Online, 118(41). https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.m2021.0296 ↩︎
  124. Niode, N. J., Adji, A., Gazpers, S., Kandou, R. T., Pandaleke, H., Trisnowati, D. M., Tumbelaka, C., Donata, E., Djaafara, F. N., Kusuma, H. I., Rabaan, A. A., Garout, M., Almuthree, S. A., Alhani, H. M., Aljeldah, M., Albayat, H., Alsaeed, M., Alfouzan, W. A., Nainu, F., & Dhama, K. (2022). Crusted Scabies, a Neglected Tropical Disease: Case Series and Literature Review. Infectious Disease Reports, 14(3), 479–491. https://doi.org/10.3390/idr14030051 ↩︎
  125. Abdelaziz, E., Elbahy, N., El-Bahrawy, A., ElKhatam, A., & AbouLaila, M. (2022). Prevalence, hematological, serum biochemical, histopathology, and molecular characterization of Sarcoptes scabiei in naturally infected rabbits from Minoufiya Governorate, Egypt. Veterinary parasitology, regional studies and reports, 36, 100788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vprsr.2022.100788 ↩︎
  126. Ashenhurst, J. R., Wilhite, E. R., Harden, K. P., & Fromme, K. (2016). Number of Sexual Partners and Relationship Status Are Associated With Unprotected Sex Across Emerging Adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(2), 419–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0692-8 ↩︎
  127. Diana, P., & Esposito, S. (2024). Epidemiology, risk factors, and prevention strategies of HIV, HPV, and other sexually transmitted infections among cisgender and transgender youth: a narrative review. Frontiers in Public Health, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1342532 ↩︎
  128. Everett, B. G. (2012). Sexual Orientation Disparities in Sexually Transmitted Infections: Examining the Intersection Between Sexual Identity and Sexual Behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(2), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9902-1 ↩︎
  129. Baggaley, R. F., Dimitrov, D., Owen, B. N., Pickles, M., Butler, A. R., Masse, B., & Boily, M.-C. (2013). Heterosexual Anal Intercourse: A Neglected Risk Factor for HIV? American Journal of Reproductive Immunology (New York, N.Y. : 1989), 69(0 1), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/aji.12064 ↩︎
  130. Vargas, G., Vincent, K. L., Zhu, Y., Szafron, D., Brown, T. C., Villarreal, P. P., Bourne, N., Milligan, G. N., & Motamedi, M. (2016). In Vivo Rectal Mucosal Barrier Function Imaging in a Large-Animal Model by Using Confocal Endomicroscopy: Implications for Injury Assessment and Use in HIV Prevention Studies. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 60(8), 4600–4609. https://doi.org/10.1128/aac.00134-16 ↩︎
  131. Cai, R., Cheng, C., Chen, J., Xu, X., Ding, C., & Gu, B. (2020). Interactions of commensal and pathogenic microorganisms with the mucus layer in the colon. Gut Microbes, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2020.1735606 ↩︎
  132. Werner, R. N., Gaskins, M., Nast, A., & Dressler, C. (2018). Incidence of sexually transmitted infections in men who have sex with men and who are at substantial risk of HIV infection – A meta-analysis of data from trials and observational studies of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis. PLOS ONE, 13(12), e0208107. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208107 ↩︎
  133. Barbee, L. A., Khosropour, C. M., Soge, O. O., Hughes, J. P., Haglund, M., Yeung, W., & Golden, M. R. (2022). The Natural History of Rectal Gonococcal and Chlamydial Infections: The ExGen Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 74(9), 1549–1556. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciab680 ↩︎
  134. Patel, P., Borkowf, C. B., Brooks, J. T., Lasry, A., Lansky, A., & Mermin, J. (2014). Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review. AIDS (London, England), 28(10), 1509–1519. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000298 ↩︎
  135. Wong, T., Singh, A., Mann, J., Hansen, L., & McMahon, S. (2004). Gender Differences in Bacterial STIs in Canada. BMC women’s health, 4 Suppl 1(Suppl 1), S26. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6874-4-S1-S26 ↩︎
  136. Bailey, J. V., Farquhar, C., Owen, C., & Mangtani, P. (2004). Sexually transmitted infections in women who have sex with women. Sexually transmitted infections, 80(3), 244–246. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2003.007641 ↩︎
  137. Van Gerwen, O. T., Muzny, C. A., & Marrazzo, J. M. (2022). Sexually Transmitted Infections and Female Reproductive Health. Nature Microbiology, 7(8), 1116–1126. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-022-01177-x ↩︎
  138. Umoke, M., Sage, P., Bjoernsen, T., Umoke, P. C. I., Ezeugworie, C., Ejiofor, D., Agha, O., Nwalieji, C. A., Onwe, R. N., Nwafor, I. E., & Chukwu, O. J. (2021). Co-infection and Risk Factors Associated with STIs among Pregnant Women in Rural Health Facilities in Nigeria: A Retrospective Study. Inquiry : a journal of medical care organization, provision and financing, 58, 46958021992912. https://doi.org/10.1177/0046958021992912 ↩︎
  139. Sanchez, T. H., Kelley, C. F., Rosenberg, E., Luisi, N., O’Hara, B., Lambert, R., Coleman, R., Frew, P., Salazar, L. F., Tao, S., Clarke, W., del Rio, C., & Sullivan, P. S. (2014). Lack of Awareness of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: Problems and Solutions With Self-reported HIV Serostatus of Men Who Have Sex With Men. Open Forum Infectious Diseases, 1(2), ofu084–ofu084. https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofu084 ↩︎
  140. Peeling, R. W., Mabey, D., Kamb, M. L., Chen, X.-S., Radolf, J. D., & Benzaken, A. S. (2018). Syphilis. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.73 ↩︎
  141. Diwan, B., Saxena, R., & Tiwari, A. (2013). HIV-2 and its role in conglutinated approach towards Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Vaccine Development. SpringerPlus, 2(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-7 ↩︎
  142. Hepatitis: Preventing mother-to-child transmission of the hepatitis B virus. (2023, July 20). https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/hepatitis-preventing-mother-to-child-transmission-of-the-hepatitis-b-virus ↩︎
  143. Warner, L. (2004). Condom Effectiveness for Reducing Transmission of Gonorrhea and Chlamydia: The Importance of Assessing Partner Infection Status. American Journal of Epidemiology, 159(3), 242–251. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwh044 ↩︎
  144. Joffe, G. P., Foxman, B., Schmidt, A. J., Farris, K. B., Carter, R. J., Neumann, S., Tolo, K. A., & Walters, A. M. (1992). Multiple partners and partner choice as risk factors for sexually transmitted disease among female college students. Sexually transmitted diseases, 19(5), 272–278. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007435-199209000-00006 ↩︎
  145. N, W. C., & A, S. (2015). Associated Risk Factors of STIs and Multiple Sexual Relationships among Youths in Malawi. PLOS ONE, 10(8), e0134286. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134286 ↩︎
  146. Brown, J. L., Gause, N. K., & Northern, N. (2016). The Association between Alcohol and Sexual Risk Behaviors among College Students: A Review. Current addiction reports, 3(4), 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-016-0125-8 ↩︎
  147. Getting Tested for STIs. (2024, April 9). Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). https://www.cdc.gov/sti/testing/index.html ↩︎
  148. Gökengin, D., Noori, T., Alemany, A., Bienkowski, C., Liegon, G., İnkaya, A. Ç., Carrillo, J., Stary, G., Knapp, K., Mitja, O., & Molina, J. (2023). Prevention strategies for sexually transmitted infections, HIV, and viral hepatitis in Europe. The Lancet Regional Health – Europe, 34, 100738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100738 ↩︎
  149. Katz B. P. (1992). Estimating transmission probabilities for chlamydial infection. Statistics in medicine, 11(5), 565–577. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4780110502 ↩︎
  150. Gaydos C. A. (2005). Nucleic acid amplification tests for gonorrhea and chlamydia: practice and applications. Infectious disease clinics of North America, 19(2), 367–ix. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2005.03.006 ↩︎
  151. Whiley, D. M., Tapsall, J. W., & Sloots, T. P. (2006). Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing for Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The Journal of Molecular Diagnostics, 8(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.2353/jmoldx.2006.050045 ↩︎
  152. Bangalee, A., Bhoora, S., & Punchoo, R. (2021). Evaluation of serological assays for the diagnosis of HIV infection in adults. South African Family Practice, 63(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/safp.v63i1.5316 ↩︎
  153. Cao, W., Thorpe, P. G., O’Callaghan, K., & Kersh, E. N. (2023). Advantages and limitations of current diagnostic laboratory approaches in syphilis and congenital syphilis. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 21(12), 1339–1354. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2023.22802 ↩︎
  154. Nayak, S., & Acharjya, B. (2012). VDRL test and its interpretation. Indian Journal of Dermatology, 57(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.92666 ↩︎
  155. Henao-Martinez, A. F., & Johnson, S. C. (2013). Diagnostic tests for syphilis: New tests and new algorithms. Neurology: Clinical Practice, 4(2), 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.cpj.0000435752.17621.48 ↩︎
  156. Marrone, R., Clarisse Merline Mekombi, Baraghin, A., Bezualem Yigezu Borecha, Perandin, F., Ragusa, A., Ashamole, D. U., Mirisola, C., & Mbiye Diku. (2023). Screening of Schistosomiasis, Strongyloidiasis and Sexually Transmitted Infections in Nigerian Female Sex Workers Living in Rome. Pathogens, 12(2), 274–274. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020274 ↩︎
  157. Mazzulli, T. (2018). Laboratory Diagnosis of Infection Due to Viruses, Chlamydia, Chlamydophila, and Mycoplasma. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, 1434-1447.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-40181-4.00287-5 ↩︎
  158. Meyer, T., & Buder, S. (2020). The Laboratory Diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Current Testing and Future Demands. Pathogens, 9(2), 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9020091 ↩︎
  159. Patil, M. J., Nagamoti, J. M., & Metgud, S. C. (2012). Diagnosis of Trichomonas Vaginalis from Vaginal Specimens by Wet Mount Microscopy, In Pouch TV Culture System, and PCR. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases, 4(1), 22–25. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-777X.93756 ↩︎
  160. Agarwal, A., Abhishek Padhi, Chaudhary, A., Mayuri Bhise, Chauhan, K., Sharma, M., Ramotra Rohini Krishan, & Dubey, P. (2024). Case series on Trichomonas vaginalis infections: impact of proper sample collection and diagnostic stewardship. Access Microbiology, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1099/acmi.0.000698.v4 ↩︎
  161. Miswan, N., Singham, G. V., & Othman, N. (2022). Advantages and limitations of microscopy and molecular detections for diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminths: An overview. Helminthologia, 59(4), 321–340. https://doi.org/10.2478/helm-2022-0034 ↩︎
  162. Opoku Afriyie, S., Addison, T. K., Gebre, Y., Mutala, A.-H., Antwi, K. B., Abbas, D. A., Addo, K. A., Tweneboah, A., Ayisi-Boateng, N. K., Koepfli, C., & Badu, K. (2023). Accuracy of diagnosis among clinical malaria patients: comparing microscopy, RDT and a highly sensitive quantitative PCR looking at the implications for submicroscopic infections. Malaria Journal, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-023-04506-5 ↩︎
  163. Arora, D. R., Maheshwari, M., & Arora, B. (2013). Rapid Point-of-Care Testing for Detection of HIV and Clinical Monitoring. ISRN AIDS, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/287269 ↩︎
  164. Rodriguez, N. M., Balian, L., Ishita Kataki, Tolliver, C., Jesus, J. R.-D., & Linnes, J. C. (2024). Stakeholder-engaged development of a rapid test for detection of acute HIV infection. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4243639/v1 ↩︎
  165. Dinnes, J., Sharma, P., Berhane, S., van Wyk, S. S., Nyaaba, N., Domen, J., Taylor, M., Cunningham, J., Davenport, C., Dittrich, S., Emperador, D., Hooft, L., Leeflang, M. M., McInnes, M. D., Spijker, R., Verbakel, J. Y., Takwoingi, Y., Taylor-Phillips, S., Van den Bruel, A., & Deeks, J. J. (2022). Rapid, point-of-care antigen tests for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2022(7). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd013705.pub3 ↩︎
  166. Gallo, M. F., Grimes, D. A., Lopez, L. M., & Schulz, K. F. (2006). Nonlatex versus latex male condoms for contraception. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd003550.pub2 ↩︎
  167. Gallo, M. F., Grimes, D. A., & Schulz, K. F. (2003). Non-latex versus latex male condoms for contraception. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, (2), CD003550. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003550 ↩︎
  168. Paz-Bailey, G., Koumans, E. H., Sternberg, M., Pierce, A., Papp, J., Unger, E. R., Sawyer, M., Black, C. M., & Markowitz, L. E. (2005). The effect of correct and consistent condom use on chlamydial and gonococcal infection among urban adolescents. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 159(6), 536–542. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.159.6.536 ↩︎
  169. Mome, R. K., Wiyeh, A. B., Kongnyuy, E. J., & Wiysonge, C. S. (2018). Effectiveness of female condom in preventing HIV and sexually transmitted infections: a systematic review protocol. BMJ Open, 8(8), e023055. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023055 ↩︎
  170. Bame, R., Wiysonge, C. S., & Kongnyuy, E. J. (2018). Female condom for preventing HIV and sexually transmitted infections. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2018(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003652.pub3 ↩︎
  171. Hoffman, S., Mantell, J., Exner, T., & Stein, Z. (2004). The Future of the Female Condom. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 36(3), 120–126. https://doi.org/10.1363/3612004 ↩︎
  172. Cheng, L., Wang, Y., & Du, J. (2020). Human Papillomavirus Vaccines: An Updated Review. Vaccines, 8(3), 391. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8030391 ↩︎
  173. Boitano, T. K. L., Ketch, P. W., Scarinci, I. C., & Huh, W. K. (2023). An Update on Human Papillomavirus Vaccination in the United States. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 141(2), 324–330. https://doi.org/10.1097/aog.0000000000005056 ↩︎
  174. Lee, L., & Garland, S. M. (2017). Human papillomavirus vaccination: the population impact. F1000Research, 6, 866. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.10691.1 ↩︎
  175. Williamson, A.-L. (2023). Recent Developments in Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccinology. Viruses, 15(7), 1440–1440. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15071440 ↩︎
  176. Ebrahimi, N., Yousefi, Z., Khosravi, G., Malayeri, F. E., Golabi, M., Askarzadeh, M., Shams, M. H., Ghezelbash, B., & Eskandari, N. (2023). Human papillomavirus vaccination in low- and middle-income countries: progression, barriers, and future prospective. Frontiers in Immunology, 14, 1150238. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1150238 ↩︎
  177. Inoue, T., & Tanaka, Y. (2020). Cross-Protection of Hepatitis B Vaccination among Different Genotypes. Vaccines, 8(3), 456. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8030456 ↩︎
  178. Nelson, N. P., Easterbrook, P. J., & McMahon, B. J. (2016). Epidemiology of Hepatitis B Virus Infection and Impact of Vaccination on Disease. Clinics in Liver Disease, 20(4), 607–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2016.06.006 ↩︎
  179. Hammerschlag, M. R., Golden, N. H., Oh, M. K., Gelling, M., Sturdevant, M., Brown, P. R., Aras, Z., Neuhoff, S., Dumornay, W., & Roblin, P. M. (1993). Single dose of azithromycin for the treatment of genital chlamydial infections in adolescents. The Journal of pediatrics, 122(6), 961–965. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3476(09)90029-4 ↩︎
  180. Oriol Mitjà, Suñer, C., Giacani, L., Martí Vall-Mayans, G.S. Tiplica, Ross, J., & Bradshaw, C. (2023). Treatment of bacterial sexually transmitted infections in Europe: gonorrhoea, Mycoplasma genitalium, and syphilis. The Lancet Regional Health – Europe, 34, 100737–100737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100737 ↩︎
  181. Lau, A., Kong, F., Fairley, C. K., Donovan, B., Chen, M., Bradshaw, C., Boyd, M., Amin, J., Timms, P., Tabrizi, S., Regan, D. G., Lewis, D. A., McNulty, A., & Hocking, J. S. (2017). Treatment efficacy of azithromycin 1 g single dose versus doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 7 days for the treatment of rectal chlamydia among men who have sex with men – a double-blind randomised controlled trial protocol. BMC Infectious Diseases, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-016-2125-7 ↩︎
  182. Horner, P. (2008). Chlamydia (uncomplicated, genital). BMJ Clinical Evidence, 2008, 1607. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19450291/ ↩︎
  183. Seña, A. C., Bachmann, L., Johnston, C., Wi, T., Workowski, K., Hook, E. W., Hocking, J. S., Drusano, G., & Unemo, M. (2020). Optimising treatments for sexually transmitted infections: surveillance, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, therapeutic strategies, and molecular resistance prediction. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20(8), e181–e191. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30171-7 ↩︎
  184. Stephen N.J. Korsman. (2012). Antiviral drugs–. Elsevier EBooks, 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-07367-0.00018-5 ↩︎
  185. Günthard, H. F., Saag, M. S., Benson, C. A., del Rio, C., Eron, J. J., Gallant, J. E., Hoy, J. F., Mugavero, M. J., Sax, P. E., Thompson, M. A., Gandhi, R. T., Landovitz, R. J., Smith, D. M., Jacobsen, D. M., & Volberding, P. A. (2016). Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults. JAMA, 316(2), 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.8900 ↩︎
  186. Shafer, R. W., & Vuitton, D. A. (1999). Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie, 53(2), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0753-3322(99)80063-8 ↩︎
  187. Sadowski, L. A., Upadhyay, R., Greeley, Z. W., & Margulies, B. J. (2021). Current Drugs to Treat Infections with Herpes Simplex Viruses-1 and -2. Viruses, 13(7), 1228. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13071228 ↩︎
  188. Pol, S., & Lampertico, P. (2012). First‐line treatment of chronic hepatitis B with entecavir or tenofovir in “real‐life” settings: from clinical trials to clinical practice. Journal of Viral Hepatitis, 19(6), 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2893.2012.01602.x ↩︎
  189. Cheung, K. S., Mak, L. Y., Liu, S. H., Cheng, H. M., Seto, W. K., Yuen, M. F., & Lai, C. L. (2020). Entecavir vs Tenofovir in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Prevention in Chronic Hepatitis B Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology, 11(10), e00236. https://doi.org/10.14309/ctg.0000000000000236 ↩︎
  190. Shi, P., Wang, X., Su, M., Meng, J., Wang, H., & Fan, W. (2023). Treatment with Antiviral Drugs Will Significantly Inhibit the HIV-1 RNA POL Gene Expression and Viral Load in AIDS Patients. Disease Markers, 2023, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/9910542 ↩︎
  191. Razonable, R. R. (2011). Antiviral Drugs for Viruses Other Than Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 86(10), 1009–1026. https://doi.org/10.4065/mcp.2011.0309 ↩︎
  192. Rodger, A. J., Cambiano, V., Bruun, T., Vernazza, P., Collins, S., Degen, O., Corbelli, G. M., Estrada, V., Geretti, A. M., Beloukas, A., Raben, D., Coll, P., Antinori, A., Nwokolo, N., Rieger, A., Prins, J. M., Blaxhult, A., Weber, R., Van Eeden, A., . . . PARTNER Study Group. (2019). Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study. In Lancet (Vol. 393, Issue 2428, pp. 2428–2438). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30418-0 ↩︎
  193. Tembeka Sineke, Bor, J., King, R., Idah Mokhele, Mandisa Dukashe, Dorah Bokaba, Inglis, R., Kgowedi, S., Richman, B., Kinker, C., Blandford, J., Robert A.C. Ruiter, & Dorina Onoya. (2024). Integrating “undetectable equals untransmittable” into HIV counselling in South Africa: the development of locally acceptable communication tools using intervention mapping. BMC Public Health, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18471-4 ↩︎
  194. Ngure, K., Ongolly, F., Dolla, A., Awour, M., Mugwanya, K. K., Irungu, E., Mugo, N., Bukusi, E. A., Morton, J., Odoyo, J., Wamoni, E., Barnabee, G., Peebles, K., O’Malley, G., & Baeten, J. M. (2020). “I just believe there is a risk” understanding of undetectable equals untransmissible (U = U) among health providers and HIV‐negative partners in serodiscordant relationships in Kenya. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 23(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25466 ↩︎
  195. Gökengin, D., Noori, T., Alemany, A., Bienkowski, C., Liegon, G., İnkaya, A. Ç., Carrillo, J., Stary, G., Knapp, K., Mitja, O., & Molina, J.-M. (2023). Prevention strategies for sexually transmitted infections, HIV, and viral hepatitis in Europe. The Lancet Regional Health – Europe, 34, 100738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100738 ↩︎
  196. Fu, L., Sun, Y., Han, M., Wang, B., Xiao, F., Zhou, Y., Gao, Y., Fitzpatrick, T., Yuan, T., Li, P., Zhan, Y., Lu, Y., Luo, G., Duan, J., Hong, Z., Fairley, C. K., Zhang, T., Zhao, J., & Zou, H. (2022). Incidence Trends of Five Common Sexually Transmitted Infections Excluding HIV From 1990 to 2019 at the Global, Regional, and National Levels: Results From the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Frontiers in Medicine, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.851635 ↩︎
  197. Newman, L., Rowley, J., Vander Hoorn, S., Wijesooriya, N. S., Unemo, M., Low, N., Stevens, G., Gottlieb, S., Kiarie, J., & Temmerman, M. (2015). Global Estimates of the Prevalence and Incidence of Four Curable Sexually Transmitted Infections in 2012 Based on Systematic Review and Global Reporting. PLOS ONE, 10(12), e0143304. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143304 ↩︎
  198. Sexually Transmitted Infections Surveillance, 2022 Error processing SSI file. (n.d.). https://www.cdc.gov/std/statistics/2022/default.htm ↩︎
  199. Shannon, C. L., & Klausner, J. D. (2019). The growing epidemic of sexually transmitted infections in adolescents. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 30(1), 137–143. https://doi.org/10.1097/mop.0000000000000578 ↩︎
  200. Elendu, C., Amaechi, D. C., Elendu, I. D., Elendu, T. C., Amaechi, E. C., Usoro, E. U., Chima-Ogbuiyi, N. L., Arrey Agbor, D. B., Onwuegbule, C. J., Afolayan, E. F., & Balogun, B. B. (2024). Global perspectives on the burden of sexually transmitted diseases: A narrative review. Medicine, 103(20), e38199. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000038199 ↩︎
  201. Rietmeijer, C. A. (2019). Improving care for sexually transmitted infections. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 22(S6). https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25349 ↩︎
  202. https://www.who.int/news/item/06-06-2019-more-than-1-million-new-curable-sexually-transmitted-infections-every-day ↩︎
  203. Samkange-Zeeb, F. N., Spallek, L., & Zeeb, H. (2011). Awareness and knowledge of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among school-going adolescents in Europe: a systematic review of published literature. BMC Public Health, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-727 ↩︎
  204. Amu, E. O., & Adegun, P. T. (2015). Awareness and Knowledge of Sexually Transmitted Infections among Secondary School Adolescents in Ado Ekiti, South Western Nigeria. Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 2015, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/260126 ↩︎
  205. Kim, E. J., Park, B., Kim, S. K., Park, M. J., Lee, J. Y., Adeleye, J., Kim, M. J., & Shin, H. N. (2023). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Comprehensive Sexuality Education Programs on Children and Adolescents. Healthcare, 11(18), 2511–2511. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11182511 ↩︎
  206. Lameiras-Fernández, M., Martínez-Román, R., Carrera-Fernández, M. V., & Rodríguez-Castro, Y. (2021). Sex education in the spotlight: What is working? Systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2555. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052555 ↩︎
  207. Wanje, G., Masese, L., Avuvika, E., Baghazal, A., Omoni, G., & Scott McClelland, R. (2017). Parents’ and teachers’ views on sexual health education and screening for sexually transmitted infections among in-school adolescent girls in Kenya: a qualitative study. Reproductive Health, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-017-0360-z ↩︎
  208. Aventin, Á., Gough, A., McShane, T., Gillespie, K., O’Hare, L., Young, H., Lewis, R., Warren, E., Buckley, K., & Lohan, M. (2020). Engaging parents in digital sexual and reproductive health education: evidence from the JACK trial. Reproductive Health, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-020-00975-y ↩︎
  209. Gottlieb, S. L., & Johnston, C. (2016). Future prospects for new vaccines against sexually transmitted infections. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, 1. https://doi.org/10.1097/qco.0000000000000343 ↩︎
  210. Tucker, J. D., Bien, C. H., & Peeling, R. W. (2013). Point-of-care testing for sexually transmitted infections. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, 26(1), 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1097/qco.0b013e32835c21b0 ↩︎
  211. Footman, A., Dagama, D., Smith, C. H., & Van Der Pol, B. (2021). A Systematic Review of New Approaches to Sexually Transmitted Infection Screening Framed in the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, and Behavior Model of Implementation Science. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 48(8S), S58–S65. https://doi.org/10.1097/olq.0000000000001461 ↩︎
  212. Adamson, P. C., Loeffelholz, M. J., & Klausner, J. D. (2020). Point-of-Care Testing for Sexually Transmitted Infections: A Review of Recent Developments. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, 144(11), 1344–1351. https://doi.org/10.5858/arpa.2020-0118-RA ↩︎
  213. Reichert, E., Reza Yaesoubi, Rönn, M. M., Gift, T. L., Salomon, J. A., & Grad, Y. H. (2023). Resistance-minimizing strategies for introducing a novel antibiotic for gonorrhea treatment: a mathematical modeling study. MedRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory). https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.02.14.23285710 ↩︎
  214. Iyer, S., Zionts, D. L., Psaros, C., Tyagi, A., Jarolimova, J., Platt, L., Kalweit, A. H., Ard, K. L., & Bassett, I. V. (2024). Electronic Partner Notification for Sexually Transmitted Infections: A Qualitative Assessment of Patient, Clinical Staff, and State Field Epidemiologist Perspectives. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 38(2), 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2023.0184 ↩︎
  215. Ferreira, A., Young, T., Mathews, C., Zunza, M., & Low, N. (2013). Strategies for partner notification for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd002843.pub2 ↩︎
  216. Oluwole, E. O., Oyekanmi, O. D., Ogunyemi, D. O., & Osanyin, G. E. (2020). Knowledge, attitude and preventive practices of sexually transmitted infections among unmarried youths in an urban community in Lagos State, Nigeria. African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v12i1.2221 ↩︎
  217. Silva, C. F., Silva, I., Rodrigues, A., Sá, L., Beirão, D., Rocha, P., & Santos, P. (2022). Young People Awareness of Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Contraception: A Portuguese Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 13933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192113933 ↩︎

Leave a Comment